Gender Glossary
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Anti-feminism
Historically speaking, anti-feminism as a direct reaction to feminist endeavours and achievements is not a new phenomenon. [Today,] the concept of anti-feminism or the anti-feminist men’s rights movement is often defined in accordance with Hinrich Rosenbrock (2012). This comprises a conglomerate of anonymous bloggers, well-known authors and politicians, as well as registered associations. What they have in common is a sweeping anti-feminist ideology coupled with a commitment to men’s rights.
Source: Ringhofer, Hannah (2016): Anti-feminism and Feminist Social Work. The new old battle against feminist achievements. In http://www.soziales-kapital.at/index.php/sozialeskapital/article/viewFile/424/765.pdf
Bechdel Test
The Bechdel Test is a way of assessing whether female characters in a film are stereotyped. To do this, three questions are asked:
- Are there at least two female characters?
- Is there at least one exchange of dialogue between them?
- Does the dialogue concern anything other than men?
The test is based on the comic strip "the rule" by the American cartoonist Alison Bechdel from 1985, in which women want to watch a film on the premise that it meets the above criteria. In reality, only 36 out of 89 films in the history of the Oscar winners in the ‘Best Picture’ category have met these criteria. The test makes no scientific claims and is often criticised. It takes into account neither the genre nor the overall gender distribution of roles. It is not meaningful for films with a female lead role. Consequently, it has since been refined on numerous occasions, such as in 2017 with the "New Bechdel Test".
Sources: The Rule. Available at https://dykestowatchoutfor.com/the-rule/
Lakhotia, R. et al. (2019): Identifying missing components in the Bechtel Test using Principal Analysis Method. Available at: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1907.03702.pdf
Care work
Care work refers to the entire spectrum of care and support activities, from childhood through to old age. In private households, this is in most cases carried out by women – even when they themselves are in full-time employment. There is no exact translation for ‘care’ in German, as the term ‘Sorge’ is too strongly associated with ‘Fürsorge’ (welfare). To understand care work, two aspects must be considered: provision of care and emotional labour. From an analytical perspective, care work should be understood as work without clear boundaries, as the carer’s commitment must always be adapted to the needs of the care recipient.
Source: Lutz, Helme (2010): Who does the care work at home? Available at: https://www.forschung-frankfurt.uni-frankfurt.de/36050711/03Lutz.pdf
Constructivism/Deconstructivism
Constructivism, as a sociological theory, refers to a perspective which assumes that observable phenomena are always socially produced and constructed through discursive and social practices. () With regard to gender and any gender differences that may exist, this means that constructivism describes these as socio-cultural constructs, produced through discursive and social practices, and as culturally and historically relative and variable. The women’s movement and feminist theory, in particular, have made this clear with regard to social gender. Thus, the marginalised, discriminated-against position of women in contemporary society is not a given that is inevitable or ‘natural’, but is produced by traditions, institutions and social action, and is constantly being reproduced. (In contrast to constructivism, ->essentialism assumes that ‘gender’ is a ‘natural’, pre-given, extra-social reality that is universal and timeless.)
Deconstructive perspectives in the context of gender studies, by contrast, assume “that there is no "actual" truth behind the diverse ways of speaking, experiences and interpretations of a concept ("woman", "femininity", "gender", for example)“ (Villa 2008, p. 201). The phenomena referred to as ‘woman’ or ‘man’ are only constructed through the respective interpretations and meanings. Deconstruction focuses on implicit assumptions and value judgements. The aim is to reveal what is excluded, repressed or left unconsidered. () Deconstruction thus demonstrates that the binary gender system is not a fact of nature, but rather a social ‘convention’ – one which, however, forms the general prerequisite for our (including scientific) thinking and action. Such reductions and unambiguous definitions are underpinned by power interests. Deconstruction generally understands phenomena as historically shaped effects of the exercise of power. ‘Deconstructions place a question mark over phenomena, () explore the idea that things could also be quite different. To this end, they reconstruct named and unnamed () phenomena, whilst also identifying coercion and power” (Degele 2008, p. 104).
Source: Voss, Heinz-Jürgen (2010): Making Sex Revisited. Deconstruction of gender from a biological-medical perspective. p. 23
http://www.gender-bw.de/fachpositionen/dekonstruktion.html
Cultural change
To achieve gender equality within the higher education and academic system, it is necessary to establish a coordinated process of change at all levels, one that contributes to a fundamental transformation in the everyday behaviour of all members of the institutions through the reorganisation of organisational structures and changes to academic cultures. Central to this process of cultural change is the shared conviction among all stakeholders to embrace gender equality as a cross-cutting priority. In addition to overarching political strategies to ensure greater bindingness, this also requires taking responsibility for implementing and shaping a gender-equitable higher education and research system.
Source: https://bukof.de/wp-content/uploads/gender2020_broschuere.pdf
Disciplinary habitus
Disciplinary habitus presents itself as a social framework for action. The university, as an environment for student socialisation, is organised into disciplines and subject areas. There is no homogeneous academic culture at universities; rather, it varies according to the subjects and subject groups. Academic culture thus takes the form of disciplinary cultures, in which values, attitudes, rules of knowledge and so on determine action; these are acquired, practised and passed on by those involved. As embedded structures within a segment of the social world, they shape the respective disciplinary habitus of academics.
Source: Kreitz, Robert (2000): On the biographical meaning of studying. The formation of disciplinary identity in the study of biology, Opladen, p. 14.
Discrimination
Forms of diversity: age, ethnic origin & nationality, gender & gender identity, physical and mental abilities, religion & belief, sexual orientation, social background
Dimensions of discrimination:
- Indirect/Direct: Unequal treatment on the basis of these characteristics, e.g. age limits, denial of access, etc.
- Direct/Indirect: More subtle unequal treatment, e.g. exclusion criteria such as mother tongue
- Intersectional: Multiple discrimination based on several of the aforementioned protected characteristics
Levels of discrimination:
Structural: Discrimination dependent on the organisation of society; often difficult to recognise and normalised due to inherent power relations and structures
Institutional: Discrimination within an institution; often closely linked to structural discrimination
Discrimination & OVGU:
The General Equal Treatment Act (AGG) prohibits discrimination. This also includes digital communication and its formats.
OVGU aims to be a university for everyone. We therefore wish to work together to continue breaking down discrimination day by day and to strengthen diversity!
Sources:
Charter for Diversity (n.d.): Dimensions of Diversity. The seven dimensions of diversity. Available at <www.charta-der-vielfalt.de/fuer-arbeitgebende/vielfaltsdimensionen/>
Althoff, Nina (2014): Human Rights-Based Protection against Discrimination. Human Rights Academy.
Scherr, Albert; El-Mafaalani, Aladin; Yüksel, Emine Gökçen (2017): Handbook on Discrimination. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
Doing Gender
‘Doing Gender’ refers to the process of the constant (daily), unavoidable, interactive exchange adapting to and engaging with the binary gender order or heteronormativity – that is, the socially prescribed division of gender into two categories, male and female, and the associated gender roles. This engagement also involves the evaluation, hierarchisation and structuring of genders in society, as well as within one’s own social environment, such as school, the workplace, family or politics. Gender roles are created and maintained, for example, through language, actions, facial expressions and gestures, demeanour, clothing style, one’s own perception and one’s own interactions with others. ‘Doing gender’ is a circular process between the performer and the observer.
Source: Queer Lexicon at: http://queer-lexikon.net/doku.php?id=gender:doing_gender; Czollek, Leah et al. (2009): Textbook on Gender and Queer: Fundamentals, Methods and Fields of Practice. p. 21; Degele, Nina (2008): Gender/Queer Studies. An Introduction. Paderborn, p. 80
Diversity
The term ‘diversity’ refers to the heterogeneity and diversification of social circumstances and social affiliations, which are increasing in Western societies – or, at any rate, are being discussed more extensively than before – as a result of, amongst other things, migration, changing gender relations and the pluralisation of family forms. A prevailing interpretation views diversity as a social and, in particular, an economic resource – as a source of potential.
Source: https://gender-glossar.de/glossar/item/48-diversity
Emancipation
The term ‘emancipation’ derives from Latin and roughly translates as ‘release into independence’. It refers to the process of liberation from a state of dependence. This liberation can be experienced by individuals, but also by groups who are oppressed by others and kept in a state of dependence. In common parlance, ‘emancipation’ is usually applied in relation to women’s rights. Equality between men and women was enshrined in our Basic Law in 1949. In recent decades, many successes have been achieved on the path to women’s emancipation. It is now taken for granted, for example, that women can pursue any career they wish or retain their own surname when they marry. Nevertheless, women still face discrimination. It remains more difficult for women than for men to attain top positions in business or high-level public office. The aim of emancipation is a society of self-determined, equal individuals.
Source: Federal Agency for Civic Education: Emancipation, http://www.bpb.de/nachschlagen/lexika/das-junge-politik-lexikon/161035/emanzipation; Queer Lexicon at: http://queer-lexikon.net/doku.php?id=queer:emanzipation
Essentialism
Essentialism, drawing on Plato’s theory of ideas, assumes that there is a real cosmos of ideal entities to which concepts are a priori (logically) related, and that it is the task of science to conceptually classify earthly phenomena into these ideal classes of objects. It is assumed that these ideal entities possess certain intrinsic objectives and tendencies towards movement, which the empirical phenomena—assigned to them by the scientist by definition—then follow. The behaviour of objects is thereby ‘explained’ by assigning them, by definition, to the abstract entities which exhibit this behaviour as an internal law of motion, as an inherent teleological tendency.
Source: Esser, Hartmut (1999): Sociology: General Foundations, Frankfurt/New York, p. 59.
Equal opportunities
The absence of gender-based barriers that stand in the way of participation in economic, political and social life.
Source: European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Industrial Relations and Social Affairs, Unit V/D.5 (1998): 100 Terms from Gender Equality Policy. Glossary of Gender Equality
Equality
A situation in which all people can freely develop their personal abilities and make their own decisions without being restricted by strict gender-specific roles, and in which the different behaviours, different goals and different needs of women and men are equally taken into account, recognised and promoted. Ensuring the absence of any direct or indirect discrimination on the grounds of gender.
Source: Glossary of Gender Equality: www.esf-gleichstellung.de/fileadmin/data/.../glossar_gleichstellungspolitik.pdf
Equality policy
Gender equality policy aims to promote equal opportunities and de facto equality between women and men, and to combat existing gender-based discrimination. It has its origins in Article 119 of the 1957 Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) (now Article 157(1) of the TFEU). () and has been gradually expanded. The private-life factors affecting women’s »ability to participate in the labour market« have been, and are increasingly being, taken into account (the issue of work-life balance). Since 1982, action programmes have complemented the legal measures by supporting projects aimed, for example, at raising awareness and bringing about a change in attitudes within national societies as a whole. Furthermore, gender equality policy has been supplemented by »gender mainstreaming« since 1996. The Treaty of Amsterdam firmly enshrined gender equality policy as a fundamental principle, and it has since formed part of the EU’s broader anti-discrimination policy. In 2010, the European Commission adopted a Women’s Charter (COM(2010) 78 final), which calls for a stronger commitment to gender equality policy. This is supported by the European Institute for Gender Equality, founded in 2006.
Source: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/employment_and_social_policy/equality_between_men_and_women/index_de.htm
Feminism
Feminism is a mindset that calls for equal rights and opportunities for all, or both, genders. At the same time, feminism is a political movement that strives for social change in order to realise precisely those rights and opportunities for all, or both, genders. () Feminist research has four cornerstones: Criticism of misogynistic theories, systems, etc.; analyses of power, society and domination; re-examining history from a female perspective; and contributing alternatives and proposals to the social debate.
Source: http://queer-lexikon.net/
Gender Studies
Gender studies is a field of research that examines the significance of gender for culture, society and the sciences, and establishes it as a key category of analysis. It can be understood as an interdisciplinary approach or a cross-disciplinary research perspective that is applicable across all academic disciplines. Gender is understood here as a social construct subject to historical and cultural change, taking into account the roles, functions and attributes attributed to both women and men (distinguishing between sex and gender). Based on this approach, gender studies examines gender relations, their causes and effects in various fields such as law, work, the natural sciences, medicine, religion, organisations, literature, the media and politics. Gender is not understood as an all-encompassing category, but is viewed in its complex interweaving with other categories of difference such as ethnicity, class, desire or age. Accordingly, the central focus of research lies in the analysis of hierarchical gender relations, for example with regard to gender difference, gender roles and gender identity, as well as their manifestation in various areas or fields of society. The research also examines asymmetries in gender relations across different spheres of society; however, the primary focus is on the question of the function, constitution and formation of gender difference. Depending on the perspective, ‘Gender Studies’ and ‘Geschlechterforschung’ are either treated as synonyms, or the latter is understood as an approach specific to the German-speaking world, which nevertheless has different research focuses and differs in terms of its institutional context.
Source: https://www.uni-paderborn.de/universitaet/genderportal/gender-glossar/gender-studiesgeschlechterforschung/, as at 8 October 2018; Christina von Braun/Inge Stephan, ‘Gender @Wissen’, in: Ibid. (eds.), *Gender@Wissen. A Handbook of Gender Theories*, Cologne/Weimar et al. 2005, p. 746; Barbara Hahn, ‘Gender Research and Gender Studies’, in: Renate Knoll (ed.), Metzler Encyclopaedia of Gender Studies/Gender Research: Approaches, Figures, Key Concepts, Stuttgart 2002, pp. 156ff.
Gender Trouble
‘Gender Trouble’ refers to the problems arising from the attribution of gender categories, particularly in relation to power and dominance. This theory is based on the deconstructivist assumption that both biological and social gender are social constructs rather than natural givens. *Gender Trouble* is the title of the book in which Judith Butler describes this theory.
Source: Butler, Judith. 1990. *Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity*.
Gender competence
Gender competence encompasses the ability and motivation to critically reflect on social, gender-related attributions, based on knowledge of their origins and their social implications, as well as to apply this knowledge in such a way that one’s own actions contribute to the dismantling of inequalities in gender relations. Criticisms include, amongst other things, the vagueness of the term and the individualisation of structural causes of social inequality, which is particularly evident in its association with the concept of competence.
Source: https://gender-glossar.de/glossar/item/27-genderkompetenz
Gender equality
Unlike gender equality or equal rights, gender equality is not a legal requirement or a political objective, but rather a normative ideal. Gender equality exists when people’s lives are no longer structured by gender, i.e. when access to and control over resources (such as education, gainful employment or time), opportunities for political and social participation, and the distribution of tasks (caring for relatives, childcare, housework) are equally available to all genders. Gender equality is often measured empirically by the proportion of women relative to men in, for example, paid work or care work.
Source: Klenner, C. (2002). Gender Equality in Germany. Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte B, 33–34.
Gender identity
Gender identity is a psychological term for a person’s sexual identity, which arises from self-identification and a process of sexual self-discovery.1) The term ‘gender identity’ was introduced by John Money and is a subcategory of a person’s gender. It represents the immutable core of a person’s psychosexuality, which is expressed as a gender affiliation. The gender-typical behaviour of a person, which does not necessarily have to correspond to their gender identity, is referred to as a ‘gender role’.
Source: http://queer-lexikon.net/doku.php?id=gender:geschlechtsidentitaet
Gender relations
Gender relations describe the relationships and interdependencies between the genders, as well as the formal and informal rules and structures that maintain or influence these relations. Gender relations are also referred to as the gender order to emphasise that gender is linked to certain social notions and expectations which influence people’s behaviour. Traditionally, gender relations were characterised by male dominance – patriarchy. Although this ‘classical’ gender relationship has been broken down in Western societies, notions of the ‘feminine’ – which tends to focus on the domestic sphere (childcare, housework) – and the ‘masculine’, which is more closely associated with the public sphere (paid work, politics).
Source: Smykalle, S. (2006). What is ‘gender’? Gender Competence Centre, HU Berlin, Centre for Transdisciplinary Gender Studies. In: http://www.genderkompetenz.info/w/files/gkompzpdf/gkompz_was_ist_gender.pdf, last accessed on 5 October 2018. Wenninger, G. (Ed.). (2000). Encyclopaedia of Psychology: in five volumes. Spektrum, Akad. Verlag.
Gendering
Gendering refers to the analysis or consideration of gender aspects. In the historical and social sciences, the term is used to indicate that a topic is examined and presented from a gender-specific perspective and through a gender-specific lens. It is assumed that gender plays a role in almost all areas of life and that power relations are marked by gender. Gender shapes thinking, ideas, and the social and political world, and these in turn constitute social gender. In linguistics, ‘gendering’ refers to the endeavour to establish equality for all genders in language and to counteract sexism by drafting texts in as gender-neutral or gender-inclusive a form as possible. The two main techniques are making both genders visible through the use of both forms of a noun and the use of gender-neutral phrasing.
Source: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gendering
Heterogeneity
Heterogeneity refers to the diversity within a group in relation to specific points of comparison and categories, although there is no such thing as heterogeneity in and of itself. It can only exist in relation to a standardised homogeneity, each with its own specific (group) characteristics. The existence of heterogeneity can be seen as the result of social processes in which norms are established from positions of power and differences between people are identified and evaluated (difference). Heterogeneity can thus also be an expression of a hierarchical structure within a group and give rise to social inequality, which manifests itself, for example, in the unequal distribution of resources.
Source: Henschel, Angelika/ Eylert-Schwarz, Andreas (2015): The Challenge of Heterogeneity: Gender and Diversity as Relevant Categories for Shaping Successful Transitions between Vocational and Higher Education. In: Freitag, Walburga K./ Buhr, Regina/ Danzeglocke, Eva-Maria/ Schröder, Stefanie/ Völk, Daniel (eds.): Shaping Transitions. Increasing Permeability between Vocational and Higher Education. Münster: Waxmann, pp. 133–150;
Walgenbach, Katharina (2014): Heterogeneity, Intersectionality and Diversity in Educational Science. Opladen and Toronto: Barbara Budrich Publishers
Heteronormativity
The term ‘heteronormativity’ challenges the naturalisation and privileging of heterosexuality and the binary gender system. Criticism is levelled not only at the assumption, rooted in everyday knowledge, that there are two opposing genders and that these are sexually related to one another, but also at the privileges and marginalisation associated with a binary gender system and heterosexuality. The term first appeared in 1991 in Michael Warner’s essay ‘Introduction: Fear of a Queer Planet’. Key points of reference in analyses of heteronormativity include Foucault’s investigations into the relationship between sexuality and power, as well as Butler’s theory of subject formation within the framework of the heterosexual matrix or heterosexual hegemony.
Source: https://gender-glossar.de/glossar/item/55-heteronormativitaet
Intersectionality
The concept of intersectionality captures the interplay of various structural categories that generate inequality, such as gender, ethnicity, class, nationality, sexuality, age, etc. It aims to demonstrate that none of these categories stands alone, but that each – both in its own right and in interaction with the others – plays a part in shaping social power relations. Its historical roots lie in the 19th century and stem from the experiences of Black women and lesbians, who did not recognise themselves in the feminism of white, middle-class Western women. Leslie McCall distinguishes between three methodological approaches: the anti-categorical approach, the intra-categorical approach and the inter-categorical approach.
Source: https://gender-glossar.de/glossar/item/25-intersektionalitaet
Neurofeminism
The term ‘neurofeminism’, proposed by biologist Sigrid Schmitz and social scientist Grit Höppner, takes a critical look at neurosexism. Neurosexism describes errors and distortions in the assumptions of the neurosciences, their methods, their public dissemination and their consequences. Neurofeminism adopts a biocultural perspective that views biology and culture/society as interwoven. This means that the development of the brain cannot be regarded as free from social influences. Furthermore, feminist neuroscience aims to develop nuanced approaches to the study of gender and the brain.
Source: Sigrid Schmitz, Grit Höppner: ‘Neurofeminism and feminist neurosciences: a critical review of contemporary brain research’. In: Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 8/2014. Online: http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00546/Full
https://www.sparklingscience.at/_Resources/Persistent/9063373e812e19bad627bb4bed4a66c37f96b0e8/lehrbuch_CSL_Tatsaechlich.pdf
Participation
Feminist research into participation is the academic arena in which the most important findings on democratic politics – which are also relevant to democratic theory – are developed. In this context of discussion, the distinction between conventional and unconventional participation is particularly crucial, as this differentiation highlights the gender-specific bias in political action within representative democratic political systems. ‘Conventional participation’ refers to all those forms of political participation that relate to constitutional, formalised, institutionalised political procedures and forums, i.e. including, amongst others, elections, political parties, parliaments, governments, as well as transnational bodies and institutions. The term ‘non-conventional participation’ encompasses all those forms of political action that are not enshrined in law and are not, or only to a limited extent, institutionalised; that is to say, citizens’ initiatives, demonstrations, assemblies – in short, primarily the typical forms of political action associated with social movements. Whilst in the conventional sphere the disadvantage faced by women (in both quantitative and qualitative terms) remains considerable, significantly fewer gender-specific differences can be observed in unconventional forms of participation.
Source: Becker, Ruth/Kortendiek, Beate (eds.): Handbook of Women’s and Gender Studies. Theories, Methods, Empirical Research, Wiesbaden 2004, p. 471.
Performance
Performativity is a repeated (linguistic) act that exerts a productive and generative effect on socio-symbolic reality, precisely because it operates on contingent social foundations. The existence or ‘being’ of a gender is therefore not an ontological status drawn from a pre-discursive reality, but rather the result of performative enactments that successfully present themselves as ‘being’ – that is, they conceal their constructed nature and produce a naturalising effect. Gender identity thus appears as the result of a ritualised practice of repetition.
Source: Schmidt, Melanie (2013). Performativity. In Gender Glossar / Gender Glossary, available at http://gender-glossar.de
Post-democracy
According to a widely held theory in sociology, post-democracy refers to the state of many Western democracies which have passed the peak of democratic development and have undergone – and are still undergoing – a profound transformation of their democratic institutions and democratic practices. This is accompanied by a dismantling and degeneration of democratic standards and decision-making mechanisms, which are increasingly losing their significance in the political decision-making process, even though they still appear to be intact on the surface. Elections have become a form of token participation for citizens, as they now exert hardly any influence on actual government action. Politics is conducted behind closed doors, driven by the interests of global economic elites or expert commissions. This leads, via disillusionment and political apathy, to citizens turning their backs on political affairs (falling voter turnout) and thus contributes to politics becoming the preserve of closed elites. The term and the concept behind it were significantly shaped and popularised by an essay written in 2004 by the British political scientist Colin Crouch. The approach can be regarded as influential, but is by no means uncontroversial.
Source: Oliver Eberl/David Salomon, ‘Social Democracy in Post-Democracy’, in: Ibid. (eds.), Perspectives on Social Democracy in Post-Democracy, Wiesbaden 2017, p. 115; Gary S. Schaal, ‘Post-democracy. Really?’, in: Magazin Erwachsenenbildung.at: the specialist journal for research, practice and discourse, 11 (2011): ‘Citizenship Education. In Search of the Political in “Post-democracy”’, p. 29 (URL: https://www.pedocs.de/volltexte/2013/7523/pdf/Erwachsenenbildung_11_2010_Schaal_Postdemokratie_tatsaechlich.pdf, accessed 7 October 2018).
Queer Theory
Originally used as a slur against homosexuals, the gay and lesbian emancipation movement adopted the term ‘queer’ in the 1980s as the basis for theoretical challenges to the demands of heterosexuality and normality imposed by society and academia. Queer Theory should be understood as an academic stance that derives its strength from engaging with modes of thought and institutions that simplify, binarise, hierarchise and exclude. It is a triply critical school of thought, engaging in a critique of concepts and categories, a critique of identity, and a critique of heteronormativity. Gender and sexuality are understood as both instruments and effects of certain modern processes of designation, regulation and normalisation. A key theoretical achievement of Queer Theory is its analytical reconstruction of heterosexuality as a regime of power that structures social and state systems. Whilst questions of sexuality and sexual desire initially took centre stage in these debates, the focus has shifted over time to a fundamental questioning of heteronormative concepts of identity. Gender and desire are understood as historically contingent and as performatively produced. With its critical stance towards identity, Queer Theory is therefore also directed against the naturalisation of the binary gender order and the corresponding processes of social normalisation.
Source: https://www.uni-paderborn.de/universitaet/genderportal/gender-glossar/queer-studiesqueer-theory/, accessed 8 October 2018; Nina Degele, Gender/Queer Studies. An Introduction (= Basic Knowledge of Sociology), Paderborn 2008; Sabine Hark, Lesbian Studies and Queer Theory: Theoretical Concepts, Developments and Correspondences, in: Becker, Ruth/ Kortendiek, Beate (eds.), Handbook of Women’s and Gender Studies. Theory, Methods, Empirical Research (Gender & Society Vol. 35), Wiesbaden 2008, pp. 108–115.
Quotas
A gender quota is a requirement stipulating that women or men must be represented in committees such as executive boards or supervisory boards of companies bound by the quota to a specific minimum proportion. Quotas for women in academia are often suspected of promoting less qualified women at the expense of better-qualified men, thereby reducing the performance of the academic system. From an economic perspective, this raises the question of whether a quota can actually increase the proportion of women whilst maintaining the quality of the selected candidates. () [Conversely, studies show that a] women’s quota in academia would not only increase women’s chances of success in academic selection processes. Presumably, more women would also choose this career path and apply for the advertised posts. In particular, new findings regarding women’s lower propensity to compete lead, from an economic perspective, to a positive assessment of quotas as a measure to improve equal opportunities in academia.
Source: Wolf, Elke: Quotas and quality – necessarily a contradiction? An analysis of the possible effects of a quota for women in academia from an economic perspective. In Beiträge zur Hochschulforschung, Vol. 38, 3/2016
Sex-gender difference
The conceptual distinction between sex as a biological fact on the one hand and gender as a product of cultural and social processes on the other dates back to work on transsexuality in the 1960s. Feminist discourse took up this distinction and interpreted it in an anti-biological sense. However, the sex-gender distinction also implies the untenable assumption that there is a biological basis for gender difference which would always precede cultural distinctions (latent biologism). In contrast, works on the philosophy of science point out that nature is always viewed through the lens of culture.
Source: https://gender-glossar.de/glossar/item/9-sex-gender-differenz
Sexism
Sexism refers to various forms of positive and negative discrimination against people on the basis of their assigned gender, as well as the ideology underlying this phenomenon that codifies and hierarchises gender roles. The term was originally introduced in the 1960s within the US women’s movement as an analogy to racism. Both men and women can be affected by sexism. The manifestations of sexism are culturally and historically determined.
Source: https://gender-glossar.de/glossar/item/13-sexismus
Stereotyping
Stereotypes are generalisations or rules of thumb that attribute identical characteristics to all members of a given group, whilst disregarding differences within that group. These characteristics include physical attributes (e.g. men are taller than women), personality traits (e.g. men are aggressive, women are anxious), abilities (e.g. girls are good at languages, boys are good at maths), preferences (e.g. men are interested in sport, women are interested in fashion) and everyday behaviour. () These examples show that stereotypes are not limited to negative characteristics, but also encompass positive aspects. Gender stereotypes particularly extend to study programs, occupations and positions.
Source: cf. M. C. Steffens, I. D. Ebert, *Women, Men, Careers*, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2016
Vertical and horizontal segregation
The majority of all occupations in the German labour market are carried out predominantly by either women or men. The occupational sectors of care, education, cleaning and basic office work are female-dominated, whilst technical and manufacturing occupations are male-dominated. Vertical segregation refers to the unequal distribution across hierarchical levels: in percentage terms, the proportion of women in management positions is very low. The lower down the hierarchy we go, the higher the proportion of women becomes.
Source: IAB Short Report 9/2014: ‘Men’s and women’s domains remain largely unchanged. Occupational segregation in the labour market’
Women’s Marches
Women’s Marches are protest marches for women’s* rights. The first Women’s March took place on 21 January 2017, the day after Donald Trump’s inauguration. This has evolved into a women-led movement that aims to mobilise the political power of women* to bring about social change that strengthens the rights of women*, immigrants, workers, people with disabilities and LGBTQIA people.
Source: https://www.womensmarch.com
Women’s Movement
The women’s movement (also known as the women’s rights movement) is a global social movement that campaigns for the equality of women in the state and society. It emerged in connection with the social and educational reform movements of the 19th century in Western Europe and the USA and spread rapidly to other countries. Key issues addressed by the women’s movement include gender equality and the re-evaluation of traditional gender roles, with the aim of eliminating paternalism, injustices and social inequalities, particularly in gender relations.
Source: https://www.bpb.de/gesellschaft/gender/frauenbewegung/